Q. How did the Varnashrama Dharma manifest the increasing social complexities in the Gupta and post-Gupta period arising from social and economic developments? [20 Marks]

Ans:

The period during Gupta and Post-Gupta age is characterised by increasing changes in society and economy as a whole. It was a period of great turbulence in the fabric of Indian subcontinent. These changes created various conditions for further consequential developments in the coming years. Following are the ways in which changes in Varnashrama Dharma created increased social complexities in the give period. ©selfstudyhistory.com

• The supremacy of the Brahmanas was increasing. The Guptas who were originally Vaishyas came to be looked upon as kshatriyas by the Brahmanas. All this helped legitimise the position of the Gupta princes who became great supporters of the brahmanical order. Soon, the Brahmanas came to be recognised as the purest and therefore the highest varna.
  • In the post-Gupta period, the granting of land to brahmanas increased excessively. This emphasised the pre-eminence of the brahmana in the post-Gupta society.
• Irregularities in the Varna order:
  • The varna order was not an ideal order. Ideally although there were four varnas, these were various groups who were kept out of this scheme and whose varna identity could never be determined.
  • They were the antyajas or untouchables. Number of untouchables, especially chandalas increased enormously. They lived outside the village and dealt in unclean jobs such as scavenging or butchery. Thus in the brahmanical order, the condition of a number of social groups remained miserable throughout.
  • In the post-Gupta period, distinctions between courtly high culture and popular culture became more sharply defined. Elements of popular culture spoke other languages, their customs and rituals were different. Sanskrit and elite courtly culture cemented its relationship even more strongly.
• Idealistic picture of Varnashrama Dharma:
  • It was assumed that the varnas would perform their duties. In reality they may not have done so. These suggest that real society was different from the ideal society and this was also recognised by the brahmana writers of the Dharmashastras.
  • The Dharmashastras also speak of the aap dharma or conduct to be followed during periods of distress.
• Rearrangement of kshatriya status:
  • Politically monarchy triumphs over the gana sanghas and the forest clans. Earlier kings of non-kshatriya origin were not concerned with acquiring the kshatriya status but from the post-Gupta period this became common to monarchy.
• Increasing feudal tendencies:
  • Due to the practice of land-grants, new, wealth and powerful landholding groups, either as owners or enjoyers of soil began to emerge as intermediaries between the ruler and the actual tiller of the soil. The emergence of landed intermediaries is considered as a typical symbol of Indian feudal economy.
  • Many historians rather than calling it a feudal society prefers to call it an integrative polity. “It is argued that the formation of states in the post-Gupta period was in itself a different process from the earlier one and therefore created a different kind of economy and society.
• The position of women:
  • The position of women of higher varnas was low. Although we hear of personalities like the Vakataka queen Prabhavati Gupta who wielded considerable power, not all women were so privileged.
  • The Brahmana texts set down norms which women were expected to follow as an ideal wife and an ideal mother. In many Brahmana texts, women were even considered, for various reasons, to be of same category as the Shudras.
• The position of Shudras:
  • The position of shudras improved in this period. They were now permitted to listen to the Ramayana, the Mahabharata and the Puranas. They could also worship Krishna.
• The practice of untouchability:
  • The practice of untouchability became more intense than in the earlier period. The Chandalas appeared in society as early as the 5th century BC. Soon their number had become so enormous and their disabilities so glaring that it attracted the attention of Fa Hien.
  • He informs us that chandalas lived outside the village and dealt in meat and flesh. He also informed that whenever chandalas enters drowns or market paces they would strike a piece of wood to announce their arrival, so that the others might not touch them and get polluted.
• Monetary anaemia theory:
  • This refers to paucity of coins and coins of poor quality with less purchasing power. Though first suggested by D. D. Kausambi, it was R. S. Sharma’s India Feudalism in 1965 that brought to focus the paucity of coinage in the post-Gupta times, its ink with trade and commerce and consequent emergence of feudal social formation.
  • Sharma proposed the theory of urban decay whic resulted in decline of trade, collapse of artisan activity and paucity of metallic money. A case study of Orissa substantiates complete absence of coins in the post-Gupta period and use of barter in trade. Such scenario led to the urban decay.
• Rural tensions:
  • Due to heterogenous and stratified peasantry, the conversion of the brahmadeyas ainto non-brahmadeyas and that of the latter into agraharam were potential sources if tension in rural areas.
  • We have examples of the Damara revolts of Kashmir, the rebellion of Kaivarthas, etc.
• Caste Proliferation: The castes proliferated into numerious sub-castes as a result of following factors.
  • On the one hand a large number of foreigners had been assimilated into the Indian society, and each group of foreigners was considered a kind of Hindu caste.
    • Since the foreigners mainly came as conquerors they were given the status of the kshatriya in society.
    • The Hunas, who appeared in India towards the close of the fifth century, ultimately came to be recognised as one of the 36 clans of the Rajputs. Even now some Rajputs bear the title Huns.
    • They given the semi-kshatriya status because they could not be considered to be of pure Kshatriya origin.
  • The other reason for the increase in the number of castes was the absorption of many tribal peoples into brahmanical society by way of land grants.
    • To the ruling chiefs of the tribes was ascribed a respectable origin.
    • But most of the rest of the trivial people were given a low origin, and every tribe now became a kind of caste in Hindu society.
  • Various jatis or groups also originated through varna-samkara or inter-marriages between various varnas.
    • It has been suggested that transfers of lands or land revenues gave rise to a new caste, that of the Kayasthas (scribes) who undermined the monopoly of the brahmana as scribes.
  • In the post-Gupta period, as more areas were brought under cultivation, settled societies which were stratified by caste came into close contact with forest societies. Gradually diverse groups were brought into a definite system. Religious institutions received grants and sacred centres played multiple roles. Local cults were incorporated into thr existing ‘Hindu’ sects. Temples acted as significant political and religious institutions.
• The changes in position of women:
  • While inscriptions give glimmers of information about royal and elite households, Kamasutra and Dharmashastra texts such as Narada, Brihaspati, Katyayana Smritis throw light on household and gender relations at a more general level.
  • The position improved in certain aspects:
    • Royal women are visible on coins and seals: Queens are depicted on the ‘king and queen type’ of coins, such as those depicting Chandragupta 1 and his wife Kumaradevi. Queens also appeared on the reverse of certain coins.
    • Matrimonial alliances were an important part of the politics of the time. This is indicated by the mention of queens in Gupta inscriptions such as the Allahabad prashasti of Samudragupta and the Bhitaripillar inscriotpn of Skandagupta.
    • Vakataka inscriptions reveal the exercise of political power by queen Prabhavatigupta during the reigns of three consecutive Vakataka rulers. Some royal women also took the initiative in gift-giving. Prabhavatigupta made grants in her own right.
    • Like Shudras, women were also allowed to listen to the Ramayana, the Mahabharata and the Purana, and advised to worship Krishna. They could also take part in rituals along with her husband.
    • The law books reflect an increase in the scope of stri-dhana. The Katyayana Smriti lists the various types of stri-dhana.
  • However, the overall status of women continued to decline in Gupta and post-Gupta period.
    • The mains reason for the subordination of women was their complete dependence on men for their livelihood.
    • Women were denied any right to property except for stridhana in the form of jewellery, garments, and similar other presents made to the bride on the occasion of her marriage.
    • The women of higher orders didn’t have access to independent sources of livelihood in pre-Gupta and Gupta times.
    • The fact that women of the two lower varnas were free to earn their livelihood gave them considerable freedom, which was denied to women of the upper varnas. Except elite women, they were not entitled to formal education.
• Forced Labour (Vishti) :
  • The texts mention hired labour used in farming. The Brihaspati and Narada Smriti lay down rates and rules for the payment of wages in cash or kind. Forced labour (vishti) became more common than before in this period.
  • The fact that it’s is mentioned along with taxes in land grant inscriptions suggest that it was considered a source of income for the state, a sort of tax payed by the people.
  • The fact that most of the inscriptions referring to Vishti come from the Madhya Pradesh and Kathiawar regions may suggest that this practice was more prevalent in these areas.
  • References to slaves are found in the contemporary Dharmashastras. Narada mentions fifteen types of slave. Also, slaves were treated as a property as they could be handed down to descendants of their erstwhile owners along with other items of property.

Thus, the Varnashrama Dharma system did not always function smoothly. The Shanti Parva of the Mahabharata, which may be assigned to the Gupta period, contains at least nine verses which stress the need of coronation of the brahmanas and the kshatriyas. These may indicate some kind of concerted opposition from the Vaishyas and the Shudras. The society witnessed various changes during Gupta’s time. But it cannot be said to have progressed in any substantial way. Some of the developments like strengthening of varna and caste system, worsened condition of untouched, increased divide between rich and poor and declining position of women puts the question mark on the view that saw Gupta period as the golden age.

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