Q. Identify the following places marked on the map supplied to you and write a short note of about 30 words on each of them in your Question-cum-Answer Booklet. Locational hints for each of the places marked on the map are given below seriatim : [50 Marks]

(i) Neolithic site

(ii) Site of Mother and Child Terracotta Figure

(iii) Hoard of Gupta Coin

(iv) Site of botanical remains

(v) Harappan site with mud-brick platform

(vi) Mauryan reservoir site

(vii) Capital of Maitraka dynasty

(viii)Dockyard

(ix) Rock shelter

(x) Stone axe factory

(xi) Satavahana inscription site

(xii) Minor rock inscription of Ashoka

(xiii) Buddhist Stupa

(xiv) Mesolithic site

(xv) Iron smelting workshop

(xvi) Megalithic site

(xvii) Temple site dedicated to Surya

(xviii) Roman factory site

(xix) Site of Muvar Koil (Temple of Three)

(xx) Megalith stone site

SOLUTION:

(i) Neolithic site

Burzahom

• In northeast of Srinagar, J&K.
• First Neolithic site of Kashmir.
• Megalithic culture followed Neolithic culture.
• Certain features differentiate it from other Neolithic cultures:
  • For example: people were not acquainted with agriculture and followed hunting and fishing economy.
• Other important feature:
  • Use of a large number of well-polished bone and stone tools.
  • Large number of bone tools in form of harpoons, needles, arrowheads etc. is found.
  • Human and animal burials found.
    • Humans were buried both primarily and secondarily in pits, mostly dug into the house floors. In secondary burials skulls and long bones were preferred.=
    • Pet animals (e.g. dog) were buried along their masters.
  • Dwelling pits and storage pits are found.
  • Pottery:
    • The early pottery:- crude and handmade.
    • Later pottery:- wheel-made.

(ii) Site of Mother and Child Terracotta Figure

Kanyakubja/ Kannauj

• In Uttar Pradesh.
• Capital of the Maukharis and Harshavardhana.
• Chinese pilgrim  Faxian and Xuanzang visited.
• Xuanzang described it as a large, prosperous city with many Buddhist monasteries during the reign of Harsha.
• After the death of Harshavardhana in 7^th century, Kannuaj remained a focal point for the tripartite struggle between Palas, Pratiharas and Rashtrakutas.
• When Md. Ghori invaded India, it was being ruled by Raja Jaichandra who had enmity with Chauhan ruler Prithviraj.
• In the battle of Kannauj, Sher shah defeated on Humayun.
• It is famous for its Ittar (Perfume).
• Of period 4th-6th Century C.E. (Gupta Dynasty), a small terracotta figure of a mother and child. She is holding a child on her left lap. The hair is arranged in a bump. She has a painted face with a raised nose and unclear features.

(iii) Hoard of Gupta Coin

Bayana

• In Bharatpur district of Rajasthan
• Also known as the ‘city of Vansasur’.
• In the Bayana Hoard, coins of Chandragupta- II have been found in the highest number.
• The famous Bayana Hoard of the Gupta coins is the largest coin hoard ever found in India. It was discovered in the year 1946 by A.S. Altekar near Bayana in Rajasthan. This hoard contains around 2000 gold coins issued by the Gupta rulers.
• Hoards of Gupta coins
  • Gupta coinage contains a large number of unique issues in addition to varieties already known.
    • ‘lyrist’ type,
    • ‘elephant rider’ type;
    • ‘lion trampler’ type;
    • ‘rhinoceros slayer’ type;
    • ‘ashwamedha’ type;
    • ‘king and queen’ type; and so on.
  • There are glorious sights here in these coins — in which kings sat playing on musical instruments, went about hunting wild beasts, held imperious staffs in their hands, and rode on elephant backs with a majestic air.
    • But, interestingly, there also appear on them royal or divine women, standing lissom and elegant, showering coins and stroking the plumes of peacocks.
  • The coins have the figure of the Gupta emperor on them. The stamps of this period are made of gold, silver and copper.
  • Samudragupta depicted as playing a ‘veena’, a stringed musical instrument.
• The Bayana Fort built by Yadav King Vijaypala  in the eleventh century A.D.
• A fragmentary inscription dated A.D. 300 referring to a Maharaja Mahasenapati elected by the Yaudheya Republic has been found here.
• Bhimlat, also called Vijay Pillar, was built in 371-72.
  • Malwa Samvat 428 means AD 371-72 is engraved on this pillar.
  • Inscription of A.D. 372 records the erection of the sacrificial post/ stone pillar on the completion of a pundarika sacrifice by Vishnuvardhana who may be a feudatory of the Gupta ruler Samudra Gupta.

(iv) Site of botanical remains

Lahuradeva

• located in Sant Kabir Nagar District, Uttar Pradesh.
• Believed to be the most ancient sites in the world for producing cultivated rice. Excavation is dated the site to six to seven thousand BCE.
  • Initially, a husk-clot of domesticated rice was dated to 6,409 BC.
• This phase also showed evidence of wild mammals being utilized for food- like the Gaur, Sambar, Spotted deer, Wild pigs, Porcupine, Mongoose, Hare and common Squirrel.  Species of birds were also consumed. There were also remains of at least four species of freshwater fishes – Ritha(Catfish), Sareng/Boal fish, and the famous Rohu fish apart from freshwater mussels.
• By 7,000 BCE it provides the oldest evidence of ceramics in South Asia
• There is an archaeologically well-defined record of settled life at this site, from the beginning of Early Farming traditions characterized by rice cultivation, from seventh millennium BC, spanning for several thousand years up to about 200 AD.
  • Early Farming Phase:
    • Coarse variety of handmade red ware and black-and-red ware industry often displaying cord-impressions on exterior surface
    • Faunal remains included some bones and a tortoise shell.
    • Plant material consisting of incidentally carbonized material included a few grains and glume pieces of rice, conforming morphological to those of domesticated form.
  • Developed Farming Phase:
    • Beginning from about 2000 BC, was characterized by an acclaimed presence of copper artefacts at Lahuradewa.
    • Earthen storage bins, baked terracotta tiles, legs of some terracotta objects, steatite beads in fairly large numbers, some lithic artefacts, beads of semi-precious stones, socketed and tanged bone or antler arrowheads with ravishing micro encircled decorations, etc. indicate considerable spurt in the material prosperity.
    • In addition to customary dwelling structures, rammed earthen floors, hearths and a mud-wall augment to improvement in settlement plan are present
  • Advanced Farming / Early Iron Age:
    • Marked by the appearance of highly rusted iron artefacts.
    • Important iron objects included sickles. Earthen floors, hearths burnt clay lumps with reed and straw impressions indicated the continuation of earlier structural traditions.
    • Bone and antler arrowheads and awls were present in a good proportion
  • NBPW phase:
    • Characterized by well-known NBPW
  • Early Historic:
    • Some structures such as a brick paved well and remnants of some ground plan of a brick structure, comprising a few rooms and typical sherds in red ware known from the deposits of early centuries BC/AD

(v) Harappan site with mud-brick platform

Ojiyana:

• Located about 30 km south –west of Beawar in hilly region of District Bhilawara, Rajasthan
• The site is unusually located on hill slop, which makes it unique among other site of Ahar culture, which flourished in river valleys.
• The first settlers were perhaps cultivators and preferred this hillock, skirted by low lying fertile land for settlement.
  • Thin patches of mud floors right above the rock and thick deposit of construction debris suggest that their house were made of sun-dried mud-bricks.
• The houses made of mud-brick did not prove very useful on the hill slop and in phase II they started using locally available stones for construction.
  • A multi-chambered house-complex built on platform marks the development in structural activity. Although the houses were built of stones but mud-bricks were also used for partition walls.
• Wattle-and-daub houses in phase III mark a sharp decline. Thick layer of ash, burnt and baked pieces of mud-plaster and post-holes capped with charcoal, indicate a devastating fire which de-stored the last settlement on the site.
• Although painted black-and-red ware is present in all the phases, a change in shapes and firing technique is clearly marked. Paintings were executed both on the exterior as well as on the interior.
  • Other associated wares are black-slipped ware, burnished and unburnished- black ware, grey ware, tan ware and red slipped ware.
  • Besides painting, pots are decorated with incision, pinching and designs.
• The excavation revealed a large number of terracotta bulls.
  • These white painted bulls, being unique, may also be termed as Ojiyana bulls which perhaps served as cult objects and as it appears white paintings was applied during the ceremony or rituals.
• Another important discovery is the terracotta figurines of cow. These were also perhaps the cult objects.
• A small chopper made of thin sheet of copper is an important antiquity of Ahar culture.
• Faience of Harappan type is also noteworthy to established relationship with other contemporary cultures.
• A good number of beads of carnelian, agate faience, shell, steatite, stone and decorated beads of terracotta were also found. Bangles of copper and shell ring of copper and pendent are noteworthy ornaments in addition to toy-cart wheels.

(vi) Mauryan reservoir site

Sudarshana Lake near Girnar Hill:

• Girnar Hill near Junagadh in Kathiawar of Gujarat.
• Major rock edicts of Ashoka:
  • On black granite
  • in Brahmi script
• On the same rock there are inscriptions in Sanskrit added around 150 CE by Rudradaman I, the Saka ruler of Malwa, a member of the Western Kshatrapas dynasty:
  • earliest Sanskrit inscription
  • mentions renovation of Sudarshana Lake which was originally built by Pusyagupta the provincial governor of Chandragupta.
• Another inscription dates from about 450 CE and refers to Skandagupta.
• Many Jain and Hindu temples are located in Girnar.

(vii) Capital of Maitraka dynasty

Vallabhi

• In Bhavnagar district (Saurashtra), Gujarat.
• Capital of the Maitraka Dynasty (480-775 CE).
• Established by the founder of the dynasty, Senapati Bhatarka.
• Centre of learning, Buddhist monasteries.
• Visited by the Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang and Yijing in 7th century.
• Second Jaina council under Devardhi held in 6th century CE when Jaina scriptures assumed their present form.

(viii) Dockyard

Lothal

• In Ahmedabad district, Gujarat
• During pre harappan:  It was a small village.
• Centre of  harbour, cotton and rice-growing and bead-making industry.
• City divided into a citadel and a lower town.
• The constructions were made of fire dried bricks, lime and sand mortar. The remains of the city give evidence to
• A sophisticated drainage system.
• Important findings:
  • Dockyard,
  • Persian Gulf Seals,
  • Shell ornaments maker’s shop,
  • Bead maker’s shop,
  • Metal worker’s shop,
  • Fire altars,
  • terracotta figurine of house,
  • warehouse,
  • merchant house,
  • impression of cloth on some of the sealing,
  • twelve bathrooms in the citadel area.
  • An ivory scale:- smallest-known decimal divisions in Indus civilisation.
• connected to other cities through river route.
• A coastal trade route had existed linking sites such as Lothal and Dholavira to Sutkagan Dor on the Makran coast.

(ix) Rock shelter

Bhimbetka Rock Shelter Caves and Painting

• Rock shelters in the Raisen District in Madhya Pradesh.
• Mainly Paleolithic and Mesolithic period.
• A World Heritage site.
• Tools:
  • Earlier (Palaeolithic) tools were largely made of quartzite and sandstone and were of large size.
  • Mesolithic tools were most often of chalcedony and of smaller size.
• Floors paved with flat stone slabs found.
• No bones have been found so far.
• Rock cave paintings:
  • A natural art gallery with rock cave paintings.
  • Numerous layers (Paleolithic-Mesolithic) of paintings with themes like hunting by men, dancing, children paying, women working, sign of proto-family set up etc.
• It is also Petroglyphs site.

(x) Stone axe factory

Nevasa

• In Ahmednagar district, Maharashtra.
• A paleolithic and chalcolithic site.
• There is evidence of factory site
  • The middle palaeolithic industry of central and peninsular India is sometimes referred as the Nevasan industry after the site of Nevasa.
• The tools include a wide variety of scrapers such as agate, jasper, and chalcedony.
• Chalcolithic phase:
  • Painted black and red pottery
  • Copper tools
  • Houses:
    • walls of bamboo and mud, rammed floor, thatched roof, post holes
    • Semi nomadic life style.

(xi) Satavahana inscription site

Nasik Inscription

• In Nasik, Maharashtra.
• Has Chalcolithic and Neolithic cultures.
• Presence of NBPW.
• Located on the ancient trade route connecting the ports of western India and north and south Indian cities.
• Important settlement in the Saka-Satavahana period during 200 BC – 200 AD.
• Buddhist rock cut caves which follow a wooden style of construction.
  • Chaitya halls and viharas of Hinayana Buddhism.
  • The façade of Chaityagriha is richly carved.
  • The reliefs of Buddha and Bodhisattvas, female deities, etc found.
  • Patronized by local kings, merchants, artisans and kings of the Satavahanas.
  • Inscription shows that one cave was the gift of Gautami Balasri, the mother of Gautamiputra Satakarni, a Satavahana king.
  • Inscriptions mentions kings of the Satavahana dynasty.

(xii) Minor rock inscription of Ashoka

Yerragudi/ Erragudi

• In Kurnool district, Andhra Pradesh.
• Major and Minor Rock Edict of Ashoka.
• Inscriptions in Brahmi Script and Prakrit language.

• Ashoka was referred to Piyadasi and the Beloved of Gods.

• Inscriptions contained on nine rocks advocated that:

  • one should be obedient to one’s parents,

  • one should likewise be obedient to one’s elders,

  • one should be kind to living beings,

  • one should speak truth,

  • one should propagate the attributes of dharma,

  • no-living being be slaughtered for sacrifices.

• The rock edict also mention welfare work of Ashoka like planting of tress, digging wells for the enjoyment of animals and men.

(xiii) Buddhist Stupa

Nelakondapalli:

• In Khammam district, Telangana
• An archaeological site important to early Buddhism and Hinduism
• Excavations have discovered a major stupa site near an ancient manmade lake:
  • Maha-stupa (mahachaitya) is co-located with brick lined vihara complex, wells, cisterns.
• Excavations have unearthed terracotta figurines, hundreds of coins from early Hindu dynasties, a bronze statue of Buddha and a small model stupa carved in limestone.
• Limited excavations in and around Nelakondapalli has unearthed wares, coins, brick foundations, and similar evidence of a much larger ancient town where Buddhist and Hindu panels and artwork were produced.
  • The discovery of hundreds of Satavahana coins which are commonly found in Deccan sites and of Ikshavaku coins that are rare in Telangana.
• Inscriptions stones and inscribed articles from 5th to 12th-centuries suggesting that the site remained historically important to the Western Chalukya, Eastern Chalukya of Vengi, and Kakatiya eras.
• Another inscription called the Nelakondapalli inscription of Krishnadevaraya is dated to the Vijayanagara Empire era, attesting to Nelakondapalli in the early 16th century
• Nelakondapalli was the birthplace of 17th-century Kancharla Gopanna, popularly known as Bhakta Ramadas.

(xiv) Mesolithic site

Renigunta:

• In Chittoor district, Andhra Pradesh
• multi-culture Stone Age site
• association with a distinctive blade-and-burin industry of the Upper Palaeolithic character
• occupations of the Lower, Middle and Upper Palaeolithic and Mesolithic cultures
• The Lower Palaeolithic at Renigunta belongs to the Acheulian cultural tradition of peninsular India.
  • The tool types are handaxes, cleavers, picks, polyhedrons, discoids, choppers and chopping tools, a variety of scrapers, and utilised flakes and massive core and flake implements.
  • Handaxes and cleavers are the diagnostic types. The tools are made on pebbles, cobbles, nodules and flakes, and the raw material is coarse-grained quartzite. 
• The Middle Palaeolithic at Renigunta belongs to the flake-tool techno-complex
  • The artefacts are predominantly on flakes, but also on flake-blades, blades and cores.
• The Upper Palaeolithic at Renigunta is a typical blade-and-burin industry
• The Mesolithic artefacts can be distinguished by their microlithic size and the raw material, which is milky quartz.
  • The Microlithic tools are on blades and bladelets.
  • Geometric types, such as triangles and trapezes, are rare. The Mesolithic at Renigunta is typical of the south Indian quartz microlithic industries. Bored stones occur with the microlithic tools in this occupation. These could have served the purpose of net sinkers.

(xv) Iron smelting workshop

Junapani 

• In Nagpur district, Maharashtra.
• Megalithic, early iron site.
• Around 300 stone circles are found.
• Iron objects:- ring, chisels, horse bits, flat axes.
• BRW pottery.
• Bead making centre.
• Burial sites characterised by cairns.
• No cremation, dead were buried.
• Cup marked stones in circle:- signify astronomical significance.
• ASI declared it National Important Monument.
• Grave goods: red potter few with graffiti.

(xvi) Megalithic site

Paiyampalli

• In Tirupattur district, Tamilnadu.
• Neolithic & Megalithic settlements.
• The habitation — cum burial site.
• Absence of bone tools.
• Huts with floors levelled with stone chips and plastered.
• Agriculture:
  • Cereals and pulses.
  • Charred grains of horse gram and green gram found.
• The megalithic pottery:
  • Thin, coarse red ware painted.
  • BRW, all black ware and the red ware found.
• Metallurgy:
  • Smelted iron
  • Produced tools and weapons locally.

(xvii) Temple site dedicated to Surya

Mandsaur 

• In the Malwa region, in Mandsaur district, Madhya Pradesh.
• Mandasor Pillar Inscriptions of Yashodharman:
  • In Sanskrit from early 6th-century.
  • Record victory of Malwa king Yasodharman over the Hun king Mihirakula.
• Mandsaur Inscription of Kumar Gupta:
  • Dated to 5th century.
  • Records that many silk weavers migrated from Lata (Gujarat) to Dasapura.
  • Some adopted other occupations while those who adhered to their original craft organised themselves into a guild.
  • Guild of silk weavers built a sun temple in 437 AD.

(xviii) Roman factory site

Arikamedu/ poduka:

• Near Puducherry.
• Known as Poduka to the Romans.
• Famous port during the sangam Age under Early Chola.
• Bead making facility and trading with Roman.
• Roman artifacts:
  • Amphorae bearing the mark of Roman pottery.
  • Roman lamps, glassware and gems.
  • Roman golden coins proves that India got a lot of gold in return of her export.

(xix) Site of Muvar Koil (Temple of Three)

Kodumbalur:

• Moovar Koil or “The Three temples” is a Hindu temple complex situated in the village of Kodumbalur, 36 kilometres from Pudukkottai in Tamil Nadu.
• These temples were constructed by the Chola feudatory and Irukkuvel chieftain Boothi Vikramakesari as per the inscription. Only two of the three temples have managed to survive.
• Kodumbalur was also the site of a fierce battle between the Pandyas and the Pallavas.
• According to the chief’s inscription, he built three temples in the complex one for himself and the other two for his wives, namely, Nangai Varaguna Perumanar and Karrali.
  • Only the basement survives the northern shrine.
  • The basement is moulded like a full blown lotus flower.
  • The other two shrines, namely the central and southern are more or less intact.
• Each central shrine is 6.4 sqmetres at the base and they all face west. The walls are rich in details and there is a small shrine for Nandi in front of the Maha mandapa.
• The two circular pilasters with circular shafts on four sides of the vimana indicates the antiquity of the temple. The feature is possibly termed Vrittasputitas in silpa texts like Shilparatna.
• The temple is counted among the four early extant temples of the Chola Empire.
  • These temples are relatively small in size.
  • They all have a fair-sized porch, locally called ardhamandapa attached to the sanctum, both of which are slightly below the ground level in a pit kind of structure.
  • The structures are also predominantly built of stone.
• Near Moovar Koil, located little westerly is a Hindu temple of Muchukundeswarar temple of Early Chola period.

(xx) Megalith stone site

Maski

• In Raichur district, Karnataka.
• Neolithic-Chalcolithic and Megalithic cultures.
• Minor Rock Edict of the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka found.
  • First edict of Emperor Ashoka that contained the name Ashoka.
• Artefacts:
  • Polished stone tools, microlithic blades, and copper rod.
  • Beads of carnelian, agate, chalcedony, shell, coral, glass, and paste.
• Pottery:
  • Red ware
  • BRW
  • Incised designs on some pottery.
• Animal bones found.
• Rock paintings found.
• Subsistence base:
  • agriculture,
  • animal domestication,
  • hunting.