Q.1 Evaluate the role and contributions of Razia Sultan to the Delhi Sultanate. [15 Marks]

Ans:

Razia Sultana was the daughter of Sultan Iltutmish. She was famously the only female ever to rule the Delhi Sultanate. She hardly ruled for period of 4 years from 1236-1240 CE. Her reign was full of difficulties both internally and externally:

• The orthodox Muslims resented the enthronement of a woman as a sultan.
• Added to these problems was that a number of sons of Iltutmish were still alive. They had their own supporters and partisans among the nobles and people of Delhi.
• The Rajputs, taking advantage of the prevailing confusion and uncertainty had started their offensive against the sultanate.
• Mongol problem, which was the biggest problem faced by sultans of Delhi sultanate from the time of Illtutmish.

But she bravely tried dealing with the problems and left an important mark on the history of Delhi sultanate as an efficient ruler.

Contribution of Razia in Delhi Sultanate:

(1) She took measures to deal with rebel noble and consolidate her position. It tried to provide stability in sultanate.

• Justification of claim to the throne:
  • Razia justified her claim to the throne despite being a woman by recalling that in his life time, her father Iltutmish had nominated her as his successor in preference to his sons.
• Use of Diplomacy:
  • The hostile provincial governors of Badaun, Hansi, Lahore and Multan ably supported by wazir Junaidi, who felt isolated and ignored, mustered their troops near Delhi. Realizing the difficulty of organizing a matching army, Raziya avoided a military encounter with the rebels and instead resorted to diplomacy.
  • She entered into a secret alliance with Salari and Kabir Khan. Thereafter she spread rumours that a number of rebels had joined her.
  • This caused suspicion and distrust among the rebel chiefs who withdrew from the capital quietly. Raziya’s stratagem succeeded and her prestige was enhanced. The provincial governors submitted to her authority.
• Distribution of important offices to the supporters:
  • Raziya adopted a number of measures to increase the power and prestige of the monarchy. She distributed important offices of the state amongst her supporters.
  • The naib wazir, Muhazzab-ud-din was put in charge of the wazarat. Her partisan Kabir Khan was appointed to the governorship of Lahore. Tughril Khan, the governor of Lakhnauti (Bengal) was rewarded with vice-royalty for not joining the rebels.
• Breaking the monopoly of the Turkish nobles:
  • In an effort to break the monopoly of the Turkish nobles to high offices, Raziya adopted the policy of appointing non-Turkish nobles to higher posts.
  • A number of Indian Muslims were appointed as qazis. An Abyssinian, Jamal-ud-din Yaqut was elevated to the position of amir-a-khur (master of the horses).
• As a result of these measures, according to Minhaj-us-Siraj, “From Debal to Lakhnauti, all the maliks and amirs manifested their obedience and submitted.”

(2) Campaign against Rajput:

Raziya also organized a campaign against the Rajputs. Ranthambhor was besieged and captured.

(3) Tried to establish an independent and absolute monarchy: Like her father Iltutmish, Raziya was determined to assert the authority and establish an independent and absolute monarchy. She suppressed the Turkish nobles, who challenged her authority.

(6) Efficient governance: Raziya governed the sultanate in a befitting manner. Bold and courageous, she gave up purdha (veil), held open court, listened to the grievances of her subjects and exercised general control over the administrative departments. In battles, Raziya rode at the head of her armies. Thus, she proved her ability, love of justice and capacity for hard work. According to Minhaj-i-Siraj, she was “sagacious, just, beneficent, the patron of the learned, a dispenser of justice, the cherisher of her subjects, and of warlike talent, and endowed with all the admirable attributes and qualifications necessary for a king.

(7) Avoided conflict with Mongol:

Raziya followed policy of appeasement policy to avoid conflict with Mongol. Her discouraging response to anti-Mongol alliance, proposed by Hasan Qarlugh of Bamyan is indicator of her appeasement policy.
But in spite of being a capable sultan she largely failed in dealing with internal problem. She could not win over rebels and finally lost her life.

Reason for her failure:

(1) Being a woman was an important cause of her failure:

According to Minhaj-us-siraj though she had all the qualities of a king, she was not born of right sex and so in the estimation of men all her virtues were useless.

(2) Her becoming sultan was against the tradition of Islam:

Razia’s becoming Sultana was against the traditions of Islam. This made many Turkish Chiefs against her as they considered it a great humiliation to work under a woman. Perhaps it was the first case in the Islamic history under a monarchical form of government. Nothing would convince the Turkish chiefs that they should be led by a woman. In fact, this practice was far ahead of the times.

(3) In place of winning favour of her opponent, she annoyed them all the more:

Razia firmness, and desire to exercise power directly became the major cause of the dissatisfaction of the Turkish nobles with her. Her appointment of an Abyssinian, Malik Yakut, as Superintendent of the Stables was resented by the Turkish nobles who wanted to monopolize all the important offices in the state. This finally led to the rebellion and she was made captive by Tabarhind governor Altunia. In spite of her marrying with Altunia to win his support, she could not win over rebels and finally lost her life.

Q.2 Critically evaluate the Tarikh-i Firuz Shahi of Shams Siraj Afif as a source for understanding the history of medieval India. [10 Marks]

Ans:

Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi, written by Shams Siraj Afif, gives a detailed account of the reign of Sultan Firuz Shah Tughlaq (1351-1388 AD). It was written some years after the invasion of Delhi by Timur (1398) i.e. after the death of the Sultan. It is the continuation of the Tarikh-i Firuz Shahi written by Barani.©selfstudyhistory.com

Shams i Siraj Afif is said to have written three books on the life-history, military expeditions and administrative achievements of each of the three Tughluq rulers-—-Ghiasuddin, Muhammad bin Tughluq and Firoze Tughluq, of which only the one, ‘Tarikh-i-Firoze Shahi’, has survived.

Tarikh i Firuz Shahi as a source of history:

• Most accurate and authentic account:
  • It is the most accurate and authentic contemporary account of his times. He used to interact with the Sultan personally during his expeditions.
  • Shams i Siraj Afif adorned the court of Firoze Tughluq as a scholar though he never accepted an official employment.
  • He wrote, in the true spirit of a historian and biographer, the reminiscences of the glorious past, for the edification and benefit of posterity, without any self-interest, prejudice.
• He gives not only the political and military activities of Firoze Tughluq but also his administrative policy with special reference to the public welfare activities.
  • Both the Bengal invasions of Firuz Shah ended in failure. Afif gives detailed account of the two invasions, the first against Sultan Shamsuddin Iliyas shah, and the second against Iliyas Shah’s son Sikandar Shah.
  • Afif is the only authority to give the reason of Firuz Shah’s second expedition to Bengal.
• Described life and condition of people:
  • The book is unique in the sense that it also describes the life and condition of the people at large, the one aspect which has usually been ignored by contemporary writers.
• He also provides details about foundation of new urban centres, water reservoirs, administrative reforms etc.
• Agrarian reforms of Firuz:
  • He provides a detailed account of the agrarian reforms of Firuz.
  • For ex extension of agriculture, improvements in cropping patterns etc.
  • Afif says:
    • A long stretch of land of about 80 krohs (200 miles) vast irrigated by the canal Rajabwah and Ulughkhani.
    • As a result of abundance water available, peasants in the eastern Punjab raised two harvests (kharif and rabi) where only one was possible earlier.
    • This led to new agricultural settlements along the banks of the canals. In the areas irrigated by the canals 52 such colonies sprang up.
    • Afif comments enthusiastically, “neither one village remained desolate nor one cubit of land uncultivated.”
• He provides invaluable information regarding socioeconomic life.
  • Afif describes life and culture during the 2nd half of the 14th century. He talks about general prosperity, cheap food prices and high wages during Firuz’s reign.
  • Afif also informs us that Firuz abolished all the taxes not sanctioned by the Shariat. He says that land revenue was collected not based on measurement but jama based on produce.
  • He also provides information on the lavish life of the nobles and brings out clearly the economic contrast between different classes of society.
  • Afif describes abuses and corruption in administration. For ex- In Diwan-i-Arz, officials took 1 tanka per horse as bribe at the time of annual muster. He also hints about degeneration in the central army.
• Monuments:
  • Shams i Siraj Afif provides us valuable information on monuments unlike other writers of the time like Minhaj and Ziauddin Barani.
  • Afif refers to the introduction of the practice of striking hours and gives a graphic description as to how some Ashokan pillars were moved to their present sites from Topra (Haryana) and Meerut (U.P.).
  • Water-clock is mentioned in Afif’s Tarikh-i Feroze Shahi which relates the installation of a tas gharial by Sultan Feroze Shah Tughlaq at Ferozabad.

Limitations of his account

• He portrays Firuz as a saintly and an ideal Muslim ruler which is only partially true.
• Only one book i.e. Tarikh i Firuz shahi has survived and even this book has some missing parts.
• His exaggeration is clearly visible when he talked about the prosperity of his times like none of the women folk of the peasantry remained without ornaments and ”in every peasant’s house there were clean bed-sheets, excellent bed-cots, many articles and much wealth.”
• There are problems of chronology in his account.
• His account also shows his religious and personal preferences.

In spite of all these faults, according to Elliot, his work gives us altogether a better view of the internal condition of India under a Mohammadan sovereign than is presented to us in any other work, except the Ain i Akbari.

Q.3 Describe the contribution of Firoz Tughlaq to progress of Agriculture in India. [10 Marks]

Ans:

• After death of Muhammad bin Tughlaq in 1351, Firoz Tughluq (a cousin of Muhammad Tughlaq) had the unique distinction of being chosen as sultan by the nobles. Firuz Tughlaq tried to revive the tradition of a state based on benevolence, and the welfare of the people.

Contribution in progress of agriculture

• Wrote off Sondhar
  • Firuz Shah Tughluq wrote off Sondhar (advances to peasants) given by Md. Bin Tughluq.
• New valuation (Jama):
  • He appointed Khwaja Hisamuddin Junaid to settle the revenues afresh. The Khwaja toured the country for six years with a team of officials, and made a new valuation (jama).
  • The amount of Jama was fixed at six crores and seventy-five lakhs tankas on the basis of rough estimation, and was not altered during the rest of Firuz Tughluq’s reign.
  • The basis of assessment was not measurement but sharing. This meant that the benefit of any growth (or decline) would be shared by the peasant and the State.
  • Since the bulk of the land-revenue had been granted to the nobles as iqta, they were the principal beneficiaries of any development.
• Improving cropping pattern
  • An effort was also made to improve the cropping pattern in the area so that superior crops like wheat and sugar-cane began to be cultivated in place of inferior crops.
• Gardens
  • Firuz was fond of planting orchards, and is supposed to have planted 1200 gardens around Delhi.
  • Most of the orchards grew black and white grapes and also dry fruits, and that the sultan’s income from these was 180,000 tankas.
• Abolition of taxes / Abwabs (Miscellaneous cesses)
  • In the latter years of his reign, Firuz tried to bring the agricultural taxation system in line with the shara. Thus, he abolished all the taxes not sanctioned by the shara.
    • Twenty-one such taxes which were abolished have been listed by contemporaries. These included the ghari (house tax) of which we hear during the time of Alauddin. Many others were cesses on produce payable at the market.
    • It is difficult to say how far the abolition of these taxes benefited the peasants, or how effective the abolition was, because many of them had to be abolished by Akbar, and again by Aurangzeb.
• Irrigation:
  • Canals:
    • Firuz founded the city of Hissar-Firuza (modern Hissar), and decided to dig two canals to bring water to the city from the Sutlaj and the Jamuna. These canals joined together near Karnal and provided plenty of water to the city of Hissar.
      • Now the peasants could cultivate two crops, the spring (kharif) and winter (rabi).
    • In Firuz’s time, the entire tract of land along the canal was irrigated, and led to the expansion of cultivation in the old villages, and new villages came up.
    • Other canals were also dug by Firuz. Most of these canals were in the present Haryana area. One canal also carried water to the city of Ferozpur— south of Delhi founded by Firuz.
    • Afif says that the entire areas from the river Sutlej to Koil (modern Aligarh) became fully cultivated.
  • Besides the canals, the irrigation scheme of Firuz included construction of a large number of wells, dams and reservoirs which greatly fostered agriculture.
    • During raining season he used to appoint special officers for examining banks of the water courses and report the extent of inundations.
  • The scheme of irrigation enabled the Sultan to overcome famine which had been the greatest menace in the reign of Md. Bin Tughluq.
    • It also helped production of the Rabi crops, besides the Kharif in certain areas that is those around Hisar where cultivation had been impossible before, owing to the scarcity of water.
    • Besides this, it brought vast areas of barren land under cultivation.
  • The increased production occasioned a fall in prices of the commodities. As compared to the reign of Md. Bin Tughluq, the reign of Firuz showed considerable fall in prices of the commodities.
    • It was perhaps the prosperity, and the resulting affluence of the nobility, which is reflected in the writings of Barani and Afif.
    • Of course, other sections, such as the peasants, the artisans, and traders also benefited. But in places distant from Delhi, such as Sindh grain-prices were unstable and wages of the artisans extremely high.
  • Firuz also benefited from the agrarian prosperity.
    • He brought together a set of learned men and mullahs who decreed that for his pains of digging the canals and bringing water, the sultan was entitled to an extra charge of 10 per cent or haqq-i-sharb.
    • This was levied from the old villages where cultivation had grown, and was a part of the personal income (khalisa) of the sultan.
    • The normal land-revenue of the new villages was also part of the sultan’s personal income. This was distributed by the sultan in charity to the religious divines and learned people.

Q.4 Discuss Alauddin Khalji’s Deccan campaigns and assess its importance. [10 Marks]

Ans:

Alauddin Khalji was 2nd sultan of Khilji dynasty. He was an imperialist and heralded an age of territorial annexation and expansion of the Sultanate which saw the frontiers of the Sultanate reaching close to the tip of the Southern peninsula by the middle of the fourteenth century.©selfstudyhistory.com

The Deccan campaign of Alauddin Khilji:

• Devagiri:
  • Even before ascending to throne, A.Khilji had started his deccan campaign. In A.D. 1296 during his tenure as the governor of Kara, Devagiri in the Deccan had tasted Alauddin’s plunder.
  • In 1306-7, The next military campaign in the Deccan was planned by Alauddin against Rai Ram Chandra Dev of Devagiri.
    • An immediate cause for this was an unduly long delay in sending the annual tribute to Delhi.
    • The command of the Deccan campaign was given to Malik Kafur.
    • Only a feeble resistance was provided by Ram Chandra Dev as he surrendered to the impenal army under the assurance of personal safety.
    • Ram Chandra Dev was restored to the throne of Devagiri in return for the assurance of regular and prompt payment of an annual tribute to the Sultan.
    • It appears that Alauddin’s policy was not to annex Devagiri but main it as a protectorate and amass as much wealth as possible from the kingdom.
  • Later when Ram Dev, the ruler of Devagiri, died (around 1312), his son Bhillama refused to accept the suzerain status of the Sultan of Delhi and declared his independence.
    • Ultimately, Mubarak Khalji annexed Devagiri to the Sultanate.
• Further raid into peninsular India:
  • Malik Kafur’s careful handling of the affair of Devagiri enhanced Sultan’s confidence in his abilities as a military general and he decided to entrust him with the responsibility to make forays in the peninsular region in the South.
  • In 1309, the imperial army began its southward march under the command of Malik Kafur.
    • Amir Khusrau has given details of these campaigns in his Khazain-ul Futuh.
  • Warrangal:
    • Enroute a surprise assault was made by Malik Kafur on the fort at Sirpur (in Telangana). The nobles of Sirpur fled to Rai Rudra Dev of Warangal and the fort was captured by the imperial army.
    • Ultimately, Rai Rudra Dev surrendered and agreed to part with his treasures apd pay an manual tribute as token of submission.
    • Warangal was a spectacular success for the Sultanate army. An enormous stock of gold and precious stones, horses and elephants brought back to Delhi.
    • The province was not territorially annexed but accorded the status of a protectorate.
  • Since the Sultanate was by this time made secure of Mongol menace and almost the entire country to the north of the Vindhyas had come under the sway of Alauddin, he planned another military campaign in the far south.
  • Dwarasamudra:
    • Malik Kafur was once again commanding imperial army and was instructed to capture nearly 500 elephants besides the treasures of gold and precious stones.
    • Here too, the terms included parting of much wealth and a promise for annual tribute.
  • Madurai:
    • Encouraged by his success in Dwarasamudra, Malik Kapur decided to move further south.
    • Sundar Pandya, the ruler, had already fled.
    • Again huge booty comprising of gold. precious stone, horses and elephants etc were captured.

Its importance:

• Alauddin’s Deccan and southward campaigns were aimed at achieving two basic objectives:
  • a formal recognition of the authority of Delhi Sultan over these regions, and
  • the amassing of maximum wealth at the minimal loss of life.
• His policy of not annexing the conquered tenitories but accepting the acknowledgement of the Sultan’s suzerainty speaks of Alauddin’s political sagacity.
• Rich booty acquired from these raids helped sultan strengthen his position in Delhi.
• These campaigned exposed the weakness of the Deccan and southern rulers. They provided only feeble resistance against these raids. These campaigns further weakened them and ultimately paved the way for more rigorous campaigns during Muhammad Bin Tughlaq who also annexed and established territorial control in these area.
• In long run, these raids also created connections with which Islamic culture spread in these regions. Sufi ideas also made huge impact.

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