Revolts against Aurangzeb

During his reign, Aurangzeb had to deal with a number of revolts, such as − The Marathas in the Deccan, The Jats and Rajputs in north India, The Afghans and Sikhs in the north-west. Some of these problems were not new and had to be faced by Aurangzeb’s predecessors. But they assumed a different character under Aurangzeb. Ⓒselfstudyhistory.com

Major Revolts against Aurangzeb: (It is not the core demand of this question. I have mentioned in detail for the sake of completeness of the topic. You need to mention only briefly about these revolts for this question.)

• Jats:
  • The first section to come into conflict with the Mughal government were the Jats of the Agra-Delhi region living on both sides of the river Yamuna.
  • The first section to come into conflict with the Mughal Empire was the Jats of the Agra-Delhi region who were living on both sides of the river Yamuna.
  • The Jats were mostly peasant cultivators, only a few of them being zamindars. With a strong sense of brotherhood and justice, the Jats had often come into conflict with the Mughals.
  • The conflict with the Jats had taken place during the reigns of Jahangir and Shah Jahan on the issue of collection of land revenue.
  • All the imperial road to the Deccan and the western seaports passed through Jats’ area; therefore, the Mughals had to take a serious action against the Jat rebellions.
  • In 1669, under the leadership of local Zamindar Gokla, the Jats (of Mathura) were rebelled, which spread rapidly among the peasants of the area. This rebel compelled Aurangzeb to take serious action in person. Resultantly, the Jats were defeated and Gokla was captured and executed.
    • It was mainly a peasant uprising and religion hardly played any role in the struggle. However, the temple of Bir Singh Deo Bundela at Mathura was destroyed after defeat of Jats.
  • In 1685, under the leadership of Rajaram, there was a second rebel of the Jats. This time, Jats were better organized and adopted the methods of guerilla warfare, combining it with plunder.
  • The rebels were continued to 1691, when their leader Rajaram and his successor, Churaman, were compelled to surrender. In spite of this, unrest among the Jat peasants were remained persistent and their plundering activities made the Delhi-Agra road unsafe for travelers.
  • During the 18^th century, taking advantage of Mughal civil wars and weakness Churaman carved out a separate Jat principality in the area and to oust the Rajput zamindars.
• Satnami:
  • In 1672, at Narnaul (nearby Mathura), another armed conflict occurred between the peasants and the Mughals. This time, the conflict was with a religious body known as ‘Satnamis.’
    • Originally, they were a militant sect of Hindu Worshippers.
    • They were founded by Saint Birbhan at Narnaul, Haryana in 1657.
    • The major religious activity of this sect is to chant and meditate the true names (Sat-Nam) of God.
      • Historians have called the Satnamis a monotheistic sect who followed neither Hinduism nor Islam and whose scriptures emphasised leading a life based on good conduct rather than on rituals and dogma.
  • This sect is thought to be an offshoot of Ravidasi sect and comprises lower strata of the society.
    • They were mostly peasants, artisans and low caste people and goldsmiths, carpenters, sweepers, tanners etc.
    • They had an attitude of sympathy with the poor, and hostility towards authority and wealth. Hence, their appeal lay mainly with the lower classes.
  • The revolt triggered when a Mughal soldier killed a Satnami and later on was killed by satnamis.
  • The killing of the youth may have been the immediate trigger, the reasons for the revolt were to do with the growth of the Satnami sect.
    • The entrenched caste structure of the era forced marginalised groups to join the fold and they protested against the high taxation policies.
    • Their rise was seen as a threat by the supporters of the Mughal administration, the upper castes.
  • It soon assumed the character of an open rebellion.
    • The Satnamis plundered many villages, and after defeating the local faujdar, seized the towns of Narnaul and Bairat.
    • They even set up their own administration.
    • Next, they marched towards Shahjahanabad (old Delhi), armed with the latest European-designed muskets that their leader had taught them to make.
  • The rebels fought well but could not prevail against such a large, well organized force of Aurangzeb.
• Afghan Revolt:
  • The conflicts with Afghans (who lived in mountain region) were continued and most of the Mughal Emperors fought with Afghans.
  • Akbar fought against the Afghans and in the war, he lost the life of his close friend and very intelligent and loyal noble, Raja Birbal.
  • The conflicts with Afghans were partly economic and partly political and religious in character.
    • With little means of livelihood in the rugged mountains, the Afghans had no option but to prey on the caravans or to enrol in the Mughal armies.
    • Their fierce love for freedom made service in the Mughal armies difficult.
  • To clear the Khyber Pass and crush the uprising, Aurangzeb deputed the Chief Bakhshi, Amir Khan. After the hard battles, the Afghan resistance was broken.
  • In 1672, there was a second Afghan uprising. Akmal Khan was the leader, who proclaimed himself king and struck khutba and sikka in his name.
  • Near Khyber Pass, the Afghans suffered a disastrous defeat; however, Khan managed to escape.
  • In 1674, Shujaat Khan, a Mughal noble suffered a disastrous defeat in the Khyber. However, he was rescued by a heroic band of Rathors sent by Jaswant Singh.
  • In the middle of 1674, Aurangzeb himself went to Peshawar and stayed there till the end of 1675. Slowly, by force and diplomacy, the Afghan united front was broken, and peace was restored.
• Sikhs:
  • Although there had been some clashes between the Sikh guru and the Mughals under Shah Jahan, there was no clash between the Sikhs and Aurangzeb till 1675.
  • In 1675, Guru Tegh Bahadur was arrested along with his five followers, brought to Delhi. Various accusations were made against him, and he was asked to recant his faith which he refused. As punishment, he was executed.
  • Various reasons have been put forward to account for Aurangzeb’s action e.g. some sources suggest that guru gave up his life in defence of Hindu faith, while some other source suggest that the beheading of guru was primarily a law and order question.
    • Some of the historians had written that Aurangzeb was annoyed because of the Tegh Bahadur’s act of converting a few Muslims into Sikh and raised a protest against religious persecution in Kashmir by the local governor.
  • An atmosphere of heightened religious tensions had been brought about in large measure by Aurangzeb’s emphasis on the sharia, his destruction of temples at Mathura, Varanasi, etc., as punishment for local rebellions, complaints by the qazis of opening their doors and teachings to Muslims also. In such a situation, any conflict with a distinguished religious leader was bound to have larger repurcussions.
  • Whatever the reasons, Aurangzeb’s action was unjustified from any point of view and betrayed a narrow approach. The execution of Guru Tegh Bahadur forced the Sikhs to go back to the Punjab hills It also led to the Sikh movement gradually turning into a military brotherhood. A major contribution in this sphere was made by Guru Govind Singh. He showed considerable organizational ability and founded the military brotherhood or the khalsa in 1699.
  • The guru had become too powerful towards the end of 17th century. Guru Govind fought a series of wars against the local hindu hill rajas and won.
    • In 1704, an open breach between the Guru and the hill rajas took place, as the combined forces of a number of hill rajas attacked the Guru at Anandpur.
    • The rajas had again to retreat and forced the Mughal government to intervene against the Guru on their behalf.
  • The Mughal forces attacked at Anandpur, but the Sikhs fought bravely and beat off all assaults. Later, two sons of guru was captured and , and on their refusal to embrace Islam, were beheaded at Sirhind. Later guru lost two of his remaining sons in another battle.
• Rajputs:
  • In the initial years of his regime, Aurangzeb attached great value to the alliance with the Rajputs.
    • He tried to secure the active support of the maharana of Mewar and raised his mansab from 5000/5000 to 6000/6000.
    • Although Jaswant Singh fought against Aurangzeb during war of succession, Aurangzeb pardoned him and restored his previous mansab.
    • Jai Singh remained the close friend and confidant of Aurangzeb till his death in 1667.
  • Conflict with Marwar and Mewar:
    • After death of Jaswant Singh the question of succession to the gaddi of Marwar arose.
    • There was a longstanding Mughal tradition that in case of a disputed succession, the state was brought under Mughal administration (khalisa) to ensure law and order, and then handed over to the choosen successor.
    • Another reason for bringing Marwar under the Khalisha was that like most Mughal nobles, the Maharaj had large sum of money due to the state which he had not been able to pay back.
    • Rani Hadi, queen of Jaswant Singh was objecting to handing over the charge of Jodhpur to Mughals, since it was the watan of Rathors. However, she had no option but to submit.
    • The Mughals behaved as conquerors and treated Marwar as hostile territory. A diligent search was now made for any hidden treasures that Jaswant Singh might have possessed. Mughal officials were posted all over Marwar. Large numbers of temples, including old temples, were demolished.
    • Later Aurangzeb scheme of division of the state of Marwar into two branches of the family was rejected by the Rathor sardars led by Durgadas.
    • Durgadas with Ajit Singh (one of the claimants to the gaddi and was a minor) went to Mewar where Rana gave him to a secret hide-out. This is where Mewar entered into War.
    • Rana Raj Singh who at one stage had supported Aurangzeb had been gradually alienated. He had sent a force of 5000 men under one of his leading men to Jodhpur to back up the claim of Rani Hadi.
      • Apparently, he was deeply opposed to Mughal interference in the internal affairs of the Rajputs, such as questions of succession.
      • Apart from this, he nursed a grievance at Mughal efforts to detach from Mewar the states to its south and west, Dungarpur, Banswara, etc., which had been at one time tribute-paying, dependent rulers under Mewar.
      • But the immediate cause was his unease at the Mughal military occupation of Marwar.
    • The war soon reached a stalement. The Mughals could neither penetrate the hills of Mewar, nor deal with the guerrilla tactics of the Rajputs.
    • The campaign of Mewar now became secondary for Aurangzeb. He patched up a treaty with the Rana.
    • The Mughals kept their control on Marwar and desultory warfare continued till 1698 when at last, Ajit Singh was recognised as the ruler of Marwar.
    • However, rulers of both the states remained dissatisfied. There was no change in this situation till Aurangzeb died in 1707.
• Rebellion by Prince Akbar:
  • The war Rajputs became highly unpopular, Aurangzeb’s admonitions and warnings to his commanders having little effect. At last, the eldest son of Aurangzeb, prince Akbar, tried to take advantage of this situation by turning his arms against his father.
  • In alliance with the Rathor chief, Durgadas, he marched on Ajmer (January 1681) where Aurangzeb was helpless, all his best troops being engaged elsewhere.
  • But prince Akbar delayed, and Aurangzeb was able to stir up dissensions in his camp by false letters. Prince Akbar had to flee to Maharashtra and Aurangzeb heaved a sigh of relief.
• Ahom:
  • In 1661, Mir Jumla had led a major campaign against the Ahoms and compelled Ahom to accept the Mughal suzerainty, to surrender some territory and to pay heavy indemnity.
  • However in 1667, Ahom captured Guwahati. Aurangzeb sent Raja Ramsingh of Amber to lead an invasion against the Ahom.
  • The battle that followed is known as battle of Saraighat. It was a decisive victory of Ahoms under leadership of Lachit Borphukan.
  • Mughals were again defeated in the battle of Itakhuli in 1682. An Mughal hold over Kamrup was lost forever.
  • Weak navy and difficult terrain was the major reasons behind the failure of Mughal to control north-east.
• Maratha:
  • During Shivaji:
    • Shivaji began his real career of conquest at the cost of Bijapur and other Maratha chief even before the Aurangzeb regime.
    • Aurangzeb distrusted Shivaji from the beginning. Anxious about the rise of Maratha power so near the Mughal frontiers, Aurangzeb sent Shaista Khan to invade Shivaji’s dominion.
      • Shaista Khan occupied Poona and made it his headquarters.
      • One day making a bold move, Shivaji infiltrated into the camp of Shaista Khan at Poona killing his son and wounding the Khan. This angered Aurangzeb and Shaista Khan was recalled.
    • Soon, Shivaji attacked Surat, which was the premier Mughal port, and looted it returning home laden with treasure.
    • Aurangzeb now deputed Raja Jai Singh of Amber to deal with Shivaji. Besiege of Purandar (1565) led to negotiation between Shivaji and Jai Singh.
      • 23 out of 35 forts held by Shivaji were surrendered to Mughals.
      • The Bijapuri territory worth total 9 lakhs huns a year to be granted to Shivaji in return of 40 lakh huns to be paid to Mughals in Instalments.
        • Jai Singh cleverly threw bone of contention between Shivaji and the Bijapuri ruler.
      • Shivaji asked to be excused from personal service. Hence, a mansab of 5000 was granted in his place to his minor son, Sambhaji.
      • Shivaji promised, however, to join personally in any Mughal campaign in the Deccan.
    • But the success of Jai Singh’s scheme depended upon Mughal support to Shivaji in making up from Bijapur territory the amount he had yielded to the Mughals. This proved to a fatal flaw.
      • The Mughal-Maratha expedition against Bijapur failed and scheme of Jai Singh collapsed.
    • Jai Singh persuaded Shivaji to visit the emperor at Agra. But the visit of Shivaji proved to be a disaster. Aurangzeb didn’t even find the time to speak Shivaji. Shivaji felt insulted and walked off angrily and refused imperial service. Shivaji was detained but after few months he escaped from detention.
    • Thus, unlike Jai Singh, Aurangzeb attached little value to the alliance with Shivaji. Aurangzeb virtually goaded Shivaji into resuming his career of conquest.
      • Shivaji couldn’t be reconciled to the loss of 23 forts and territory worth four lakhs huns a year to the Mughals without any compensation from Bijapur.
      • He renewed the contest with the Mughals, sacking Surat a send time in 1670.
    • During next four years, he recovered a large number of his forts, including Purandar, from the Mughals and made inroads into Mughal territories.
      • Mughal preoccupation with the Afghan uprising in the northwest helped Shivaji.
    • In 1674, Shivaji crowned himself formally at Raigarh. The formal coronation placed him on a pedestal much higher than any of Maratha chiefs and also stregnthen his social position further. Further, as an independent ruler it now became possible for Shivaji to enter into treaties with the Deccami sultans on a footing of equality and not as a rebel.
    • Marathas continued to raid Mughal territory.
  • Post-Shivaji:
    • Aurangzeb reached the Deccan in 1681 in pursuit of his rebel son Prince Akbar who had got shelter under Sambhaji.
    • Aurangzeb tried to detach Bijapur and Golconda from the side of the Maratha. But it could not be realised. The Marathas were only shield against the Mughals and the Deccani states were not prepared to throw it away.
    • Aurangzeb decided to force the issue and it led to war. Both the Bijapur and Golconda was fell and was annexed. But the extinction of Bijapur and Golconda was only the beginning of difficulties for Aurangzeb.
    • In 1689, Sambhaji was caught and executed as a rebel and an infidel. It was a big mistake.
      • The execution of Sambhaji provided the Marathas a new cause.
      • At the same time, in the absence of a single rallying point, the Maratha sardars were left free to plunder the Mughal territories, disappearing at the approach of the Mughal forces, and rallying again.
      • Instead of having destroyed the Maratha state, Aurangzeb made the Maratha opposition all-pervasive in the Deccan.
    • Soon, Maratha resistance spread from the west to east coast.
    • Now, Aurangzeb concentrated on annexing to the empire rich Karnataka tract. However, his unduly extended line of communications became vulnerable to Maratha attacks.
    • During 1690-1703, Aurangzeb stubbornly refused to negotiate with the Marathas. From 1700 to 1705, he set out to capture all the Maratha forts. The Mughals continued to suffer a number of reverses. Flood, disease and Maratha roving bands took fearful toll of the Mughal army.
    • Weariness and disaffection steadily grew among the mobles and in the army. Demoralization set in, and many Jagirdars made secret pacts with the Marathas and agreed to pay chauth if the Marathas didn’t disturb their jagirs.
    • In 1703, Aurangzeb opened negotiation with the Marathas. He was prepared to release Shahu, the son of Sambhaji, who had been captured. He was also prepared to grant to Shahu, Shivaji’s swarajya and the right of sardeshmukhi over the Deccan, thus recognising his special position.
      • But, Aurangzeb cancelled the arrangements at the last minute, being uncertain about the intentions of the Marathas.
    • By 1706, Aurangzeb was convinced of the futility of his effort to capture all the Maratha forts.
    • Aurangzeb breathed his last at Aurangabad in 1707, leaving behind an empire with various internal problems.

Nature of these revolts:

• The nature of these problems was different from each other, for example −
  • In the case of the Rajputs, it was basically a problem of succession.
  • In the case of the Marathas and Ahoms, it was the issue of local independence.
  • In the case of Jats, it was the clash of peasant-agrarian background.
  • In the case of Afghans, it was a tribal issue. Here also the sentiment of setting up a separate Afghan state was at work.
    • The Afghan uprising shows that sentiments of resistance to Mughal rule and the urge of regional freedom were not confined to sections of Hindus such as Jats, Marathas, etc.
  • The only movement in which religion played a powerful role was the Sikh movement.
    • However, here too the struggle with Guru Govind Singh was not primarily a religious struggle. It was partly offshoot of local rivalries among the Hindu hill rajas and the Sikhs, and partly an outcome of the Sikh movement as it had developed.
    • In fact it seems, Aurangzeb was not keen to destroy the guru and wrote to the governor of Lahore ‘to conciliate the guru’. Aurangzeb even invite guru to meet him in Deccan. Towards the end of 1706, the guru set out for the Deccan and was on the way when Aurangzeb died. According to some, he had hoped to persuade Aurangzeb to restore Anandpur to him.
• Thus, economic and social factors, as well as the sentiment of regional independence which continued to be strong were major factors in shaping these movements. Religion also played an undoubted role.
• It has been sometimes argued that all these movements, excluding the Afghan one, represented a Hindu reaction against Aurangzeb’s narrow religious policies.
  • In a country where the overwhelming section of the people consisted of Hindus, any movement which came into conflict with the predominantly Muslim central government could be dubbed a challenge to Islam.
  • Likewise, the leaders of these ‘rebel’ movements could use religious slogans or symbols to broaden their appeal.
  • Hence, religion must be seen as part of societal and political movements.

Consequences of these revolts:

• Role in decline of Mughals:
  • The Mughal empire declined rapidly after the death of Aurangzeb. The Mughal court became the scene for faction fighting among the nobles.
  • Attempt to extend Mughal administration over Golconda, Bijapur and Karnataka, stretched the Mughal administration to a breaking point. It also laid Mughal lines of communications open to Maratha attack, so much so, that the Mughal nobles into the area found it impossible to collect their dues from the jagirs assigned to them and sometimes made private pacts with the Maratha.
    • This in turn raised the power and prestige of the Marathas, led to demoralisation of the nobility and a setback to the imperial prestige.
    • The Maratha depredation extended from the Deccan to the heartland of the empire, the Gangetic plains.
  • Aurangzeb’s policy towards Marwar and Mewar was clumsy and blundering, and brought no advantage of any kind to the Mughals.
    • On the other hand, Mughal failure against these states damaged Mughal military prestige.
    • But the results of the Marwar policy of Aurangzeb cannot be judged solely by these. The Breach with Marwar and Mewar weakened the Mughal alliance with the Rajputs at a crucial time.
    • Above all, it created doubts about the firmness of Mughal support to old and trusted allies and the ulterior motives of Aurangzeb.
• The continuous anarchy, wars brought trade, industry and agriculture to a virtual standstill in areas affected with revolt.
  • e.g. Chetan Singh studied the Punjab regions and argue that the Afghan uprising and Sikh rebellion had grave social and economic consequences for Punjab: they disrupted trade and thereby gradually eroded the economy which was based on a commercialized agrarian sector. According to him the loosening of Punjab’s socio-economic structure led to social unrest and eventually led to the dissociation of Punjab from the Empire.
• In long run, the Jat, Maratha and the Sikh movements concluded in attempts to set up the independent regional states.
  • Although Guru Govind Singh was not able to withstand Mughal height for long, or to establish a separate Sikh state, he created a tradition and also forged a weapon for its realization later on. It also showed how an egalitarian religious movement could, under certain circumstances, turn into a political and militaristic movement, and subtly towards regional independence.
• These revolts also created favourable condition for other revolts:
  • The Afghan uprising helped to relax Mughal pressure on Shivaji during a crucial period. It also made difficult, if not impossible, a forward policy by the Mughals in the Deccan till 1676 by which time Shivaji had crowned and entered into an alliance with Bijapur and Golkonda.
  • Had there were no breach with Rajputs, Rathor Rajputs may have helped Mughal in Deccan campaign.
• Aurangzeb’s policy towards Marwar and Mewar was clumsy and blundering, and brought no advantage of any kind to the Mughals.
  • On the other hand, Mughal failure against these states damaged Mughal military prestige.
  • It is true that the warfare in Marwar after 1681 involved only a few troops, and were not of much consequence militarily. It is also true that Hada and Kachhwaha and other Rajput ontin gents continued to serve the Mughals.
  • But the results of the Marwar policy of Aurangzeb cannot be judged solely by these. The Breach with Marwar and Mewar weakened the Mughal alliance with the Rajputs at a crucial time.
  • Above all, it created doubts about the firmness of Mughal support to old and trusted allies and the ulterior motives of Aurangzeb.
  • It showed the rigid and obstinate nature of Aurangzeb.
  • It did not, however, amount to a fixed determination on his part to subvert Hinduism, as has been alleged, because during the period after 1679, large number of Marathas were allowed entry into nobility.

However, impacts of these revolts should not be overestimated:

• Despite the mistakes of policy and some of the shortcomings of Aurangzeb, the Mughal empire was still a powerful and vigorous military and administrative machinery.
• Mughal army failed against the elusive and highly mobile bands of Marathas in the mountainous region of the Deccan, but in plains of north India and the vast plateau extending upto the Karnataka, the Mughal artillery was still master of the field.
• In the northern India which was the heart of the empire and was of decisive economic and political importance in the country, the Mughal administration still remained much of its vigour, and trade and industry not only continued to flourish, but expanded.
• Politically, despite the military reverses and the mistakes of Aurangzeb, the Mughal dynasty still retained a powerful hold on the mind and imagination of the people.
• As far as Rajputs are concerned, demands of Rajputs related to grant of high mansabs as before and restoration of their homelands were accepted within half a dozen years of Aurangzeb’s death and the Rajput ceased to be a problem for the Mughals. They played little active role in the subsequent disintegration of the empire, not help in arresting the process of decline.

However, these revolts did have consequences in socio-economic and political arena. But these revolts were not solely responsible for the weakening and decline of the Mughal empire various other factors played in shaping the history of the 18th century. Ⓒselfstudyhistory.com